1. Resource Mobilization Theory (McCarthy & Zald)
Analytical Tools:
- Resource Mobilization Theory focuses on how resources—such as money, time, organizational support, and information—are used to facilitate the mobilization of social movements. This theory emphasizes the strategic use of resources to build and sustain movements.
- Key Concepts:
- Resource Accessibility: The availability of resources determines the success or failure of movements. Movements with access to financial resources, skilled personnel, and organizational structures are more likely to succeed.
- Social Movement Organizations (SMOs): The theory stresses the importance of well-organized movement organizations that can effectively mobilize resources and coordinate collective action.
- Political Opportunities: Movements emerge when there are political or social windows of opportunity that allow them to push for change, often triggered by elite divisions or changes in policy.
Political Discourse Considerations:
- Framing of Resource Mobilization: When analyzing social movements, it is important to consider how leaders and activists frame their demands to attract resources. Do movements frame their objectives in a way that makes them appealing to donors, volunteers, and politicians?
- Strategic Use of Resources: Consider how movements might leverage media access, alliances, and social networks to mobilize resources. How do social movements strategically position themselves to gain the support of key actors in the political arena?
- Political Opportunity Structures: When applying this theory, we look at the political context in which movements arise. Are there political openings (e.g., a weakened government or a political crisis) that enable movements to use their resources effectively?
2. Political Process Theory (Tilly, Tarrow)
Analytical Tools:
- Political Process Theory focuses on the interaction between political systems and social movements. It emphasizes the political environment and the mobilizing structures that influence the ability of movements to achieve their goals.
- Key Concepts:
- Political Opportunities: Political Process Theory underscores that movements emerge when there are favorable political opportunities—such as elite divisions, policy openings, or alliances with key political players.
- Collective Action Frames: Movements must frame their collective grievances in ways that resonate with broader public opinion and political elites.
- Tilly’s Theory of Repertoire of Contention: Charles Tilly argued that social movements rely on a repertoire of contention—a set of available strategies and tactics, such as protests, strikes, or petitions, that movements use to press their demands.
Political Discourse Considerations:
- Framing of Political Opportunity: How do movements frame their issues as politically relevant? How do they position themselves as part of broader political struggles to gain legitimacy and political support?
- Interaction with Political Institutions: How do movements interact with political institutions (e.g., the government, political parties) to achieve their goals? Do they use formal political channels (e.g., lobbying, petitions) or informal protest actions (e.g., direct action, civil disobedience)?
- Strategic Mobilization and Tactical Adaptation: How do movements adapt their tactics based on the political environment? For example, do they shift from peaceful protests to radical action in response to political repression?
3. New Social Movements Theory (Touraine, Melucci)
Analytical Tools:
- New Social Movements Theory shifts focus from traditional labor movements and class-based politics to post-materialist issues such as identity, environment, and cultural values. It emphasizes the role of collective identity, social networks, and individual subjectivity in shaping contemporary social movements.
- Key Concepts:
- Social Identity: Movements are not just about political change, but also about creating and expressing collective identities. Social movements serve as platforms for groups to assert their identities, whether based on gender, ethnicity, sexuality, or environmentalism.
- Autonomy of Social Movements: New Social Movements argue for the autonomy of movements from traditional political institutions. These movements often reject traditional party politics and instead promote more horizontal, decentralized forms of action.
- Melucci’s Social Networks: Alberto Melucci focused on the role of social networks in new movements, arguing that movements are driven by shared practices and the construction of collective meaning.
Political Discourse Considerations:
- Framing Collective Identity: How do social movements frame their collective identity in the political discourse? Are their demands framed in ways that resonate with individuals’ values and experiences? How do movements create narratives that unite participants around a common cause?
- Post-materialist Demands: New Social Movements often articulate non-economic demands, such as social justice, environmental protection, or human rights. How are these issues framed in political discourse to challenge traditional, materialistic political agendas?
- Autonomy and Resistance: How do these movements resist institutional co-optation or state control? What role do direct action, civil disobedience, and non-hierarchical structures play in their political strategies?
4. Frame Analysis (Snow & Benford)
Analytical Tools:
- Frame Analysis focuses on how movements construct interpretive frames that define and legitimize their issues. Snow & Benford argue that social movements are successful when they effectively frame issues in ways that resonate with the public and influence political discourse.
- Key Concepts:
- Diagnostic Framing: Identifying the problem or injustice that requires action. This is the problem definition aspect of framing (e.g., environmental destruction, gender inequality).
- Prognostic Framing: Offering solutions or strategies for addressing the identified problem. This involves proposing specific policy changes or reforms.
- Motivational Framing: Creating a sense of urgency and encouraging participation in the movement. This often involves moral appeals, emotional appeals, and calls to action.
Political Discourse Considerations:
- Effective Framing for Mobilization: Frame Analysis helps us understand how movements need to craft their messages to be understood and resonant with various audiences. How do movements define problems, offer solutions, and mobilize individuals to take action?
- Strategic Use of Media: How do movements use media and public discourse to frame issues and shape public opinion? Are certain narratives promoted through media coverage (e.g., environmental crisis, social justice)?
- Frame Disputes and Counter-Framing: Frame Analysis also helps in examining how opposing political actors or the state engage in counter-framing to undermine the legitimacy of social movements. How do opponents of a movement attempt to reframe issues to delegitimize the movement’s goals?
Social movements, through their complex processes of mobilization, framing, and strategic action, shape and are shaped by political opportunities and institutional contexts. By using these theories, we can better understand how collective action emerges, how it is sustained, and how it influences political discourse.